The economic situation in Russia before the overthrow of the monarchy appeared no worse than, and in some respects was preferable to, that in other warring countries, according to objective indicators. For example, the real incomes of peasants rose in 1914-1916 because of satisfactory harvests, a decreased tax burden in real terms (thanks to inflation), reduced expenditures on alcohol, the mass sale of horses to meet the army's needs, and the receipt of state benefits for the mobilized. Industrial workers, too, experienced a slight increase in their real wages in 1914-1916. Only white-collar workers and those in the professions were perceptibly worse off; their real income began to decline when the war began. The food supply remained at an adequate level. After the overthrow of the monarchy, the position of all social groups began to worsen. Workers' demands to raise their wages immediately and substantially, as well as to improve their working conditions, forced the government to start round-the-clock currency production. Unrestrained issuing of paper currency resulted in massive inflation. Consequently, the real incomes of the population began to decline. By 1920 workers' wages fell to a level three times below the pre-war level, and intellectual workers' salaries were nine times lower. The peasants' position also took a turn for the worse but to a lesser degree. Privations during the First World War had a significant defining feature: They set in after a prolonged rise in the population's well-being during the prewar period and contrasted with high hopes tied to victory in the war. Society's rising expectations clashed head-on with the sudden deterioration in living conditions, while failures at the front and large military losses deprived the population of optimism and faith in ultimate victory, which proved especially painful. As a result people found themselves under the pressure of a dual deprivation. It was the revolution that dealt the economy, the standard of living, and the quality of governance a crippling blow. The revolution gave way to anarchy, led to the army's collapse, and ignited revolutionary violence and disorder. The extremely precarious, difficult situation prevailing in the country during the eight months of the Provisional Government's rule gave birth to the October uprising, forcing Russia to withdraw from the war, and initiated the Civil War. Refs 69. Tables 17.